A Causal Model of Job Satisfaction Based on Perceived Social Support : The Mediating Role of Cognitive Adaptability among Physical Education Teachers

Introduction

In today’s highly competitive environment, organizational advantage depends not only on performance outcomes but also on the effectiveness and value of human resources. Accordingly, a substantial body of organizational behavior research has examined employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance (Ali & Anwar, 2021). Job satisfaction, defined as an individual’s overall attitude toward the work environment, plays a pivotal role in strengthening organizational commitment, reducing turnover intention, and enhancing job performance (Katebi et al., 2022). Among various organizations, the education sector—supported by committed human resources and particularly physical education teachers—plays a critical role in fostering students’ physical and psychological development (Olan et al., 2022; Keshavarz & Eidi, 2024). Given the shortage of specialized teachers and the dynamic nature of this field, promoting motivation and job satisfaction among physical education teachers has become an even more pressing necessity (Keshavarz & Eidi, 2024).

Previous studies have identified multiple determinants of job satisfaction, including salary, workplace relationships, and individual characteristics (Olan et al., 2022). Among these factors, perceived social support—defined as individuals’ perception of access to assistance from others—has been widely recognized as a protective resource against work-related stress and as a contributor to enhanced feelings of self-worth and job satisfaction (Taylor, 2003; Zeng et al., 2020). Social support may originate from multiple sources, including supervisors, coworkers, and family members. Taylor (2003) emphasizes that social bonds and interpersonal connections are experienced as inherently satisfying aspects of life. Social support is a reciprocal process that fosters positive self-perceptions, feelings of love and value, and opportunities for self-actualization and personal growth (Taylor, 2003).

Furthermore, social support functions as a buffering mechanism against stress, exerting significant effects on health and social functioning by fostering a sense of being cared for, respected, and embedded within a supportive social network (Cohen & McKay, 2020). In organizational contexts, perceived social support is regarded as a crucial life resource that enhances job satisfaction across institutions and professional settings (Zeng et al., 2020). The effectiveness of social support may depend on how individuals utilize their social networks and relational resources (Jolly et al., 2021). Empirical evidence suggests that social support reduces the adverse effects of occupational and societal stressors and, in turn, contributes positively to overall quality of life (Savari et al., 2023).

Perceived social support, defined as individuals’ understanding of the availability of support from others when assistance is needed, serves as a protective factor against stressors and enables individuals to cope more effectively with psychological challenges (Nunes et al., 2021). Moreover, social support facilitates positive social relationships, emotional balance, and higher levels of job satisfaction (Savari et al., 2023). Supporting this association, prior studies have reported significant relationships between perceived social support and job satisfaction across occupational contexts (Katebi et al., 2022; Zeng et al., 2020). Within the work–family interface, social support is closely linked to the interaction between work and family roles, such that family support may mitigate work-related conflict, whereas workplace support may reduce the intrusion of work demands into family life (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985).

Despite the established importance of these external resources, their relationship with job satisfaction may not be purely direct and may operate through individual-level psychological mechanisms (Kwok et al., 2015). In this regard, cognitive adaptability—defined as the capacity to maintain a healthy balance between the self and the social environment—has been identified as an important indicator of mental health and a key determinant of occupational success (Bulińska-Stangrecka & Bagieńska, 2021; Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2021). Cognitive adaptability may serve as a mediating mechanism through which social support exerts its influence on job satisfaction, such that supportive social environments foster adaptive cognitive processes, which in turn enhance occupational well-being (Kwok et al., 2015). Although previous research has independently confirmed associations among perceived social support, cognitive functioning, and job satisfaction, a major gap remains in the absence of an integrative causal model explaining how perceived social support influences job satisfaction through cognitive adaptability, particularly among physical education teachers.

Accordingly, the present study aims to develop and test a causal model for predicting job satisfaction among physical education teachers in non-governmental schools. In this model, perceived social support is conceptualized as the exogenous variable, job satisfaction as the endogenous outcome variable, and cognitive adaptability as the mediating mechanism. The central research question is as follows: Does the causal model of physical education teachers’ job satisfaction, based on perceived social support with the mediating role of cognitive adaptability, demonstrate an acceptable level of model fit?

Methods

Study Design

This study is classified as applied research in terms of its objective and employed a descriptive–correlational design with structural equation modeling (SEM) for data analysis. The statistical population comprised all physical education teachers working in non-governmental schools in Tehran during the 2023–2024 academic year, totaling approximately 2,267 teachers.

Participants

A multistage cluster sampling method was used to select the study sample from the eight educational districts of Tehran. Initially, three districts (Districts 1, 3, and 4) were randomly selected. Subsequently, using the lists of physical education teachers in these districts and a random number table, participants were randomly chosen. The final sample consisted of 336 physical education teachers, including 134 females and 202 males. Data were collected using online questionnaire forms distributed via email and social media platforms. The participants’ ages ranged from 24 to 69 years, with a mean age of 41.7 years. Teaching experience as a physical education teacher ranged from 1 to 32 years, with an average of 10.8 years. In terms of educational attainment, 168 participants (50%) held a bachelor’s degree, 158 (47%) held a master’s degree, and 10 participants (3%) held a doctoral degree.

Instruments

Four standardized questionnaires were used to collect data for testing the proposed model:

Job Satisfaction Questionnaire

Job satisfaction was measured using a 22-item questionnaire developed by Ashouri-Nejad (2016) based on the theoretical framework proposed by Smith et al. (1969). The questionnaire consists of five dimensions: salary, coworkers, nature of work, supervision, and promotion opportunities. Responses are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Previous validation studies reported acceptable psychometric properties, with content validity of 0.80 and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.82 for salary, 0.73 for coworkers, 0.75 for nature of work, 0.80 for supervision, 0.73 for promotion opportunities, and 0.89 for overall job satisfaction. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the overall scale was 0.76. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 526.15, p < 0.001), and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure was 0.65, indicating adequate sampling adequacy for factor analysis.

Perceived Social Support Questionnaire

Perceived social support was assessed using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), developed by Zimet et al. (1988). This 12-item scale evaluates perceived support from three sources: family, friends, and significant others. Items are rated on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Previous studies have confirmed the validity and reliability of the MSPSS. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the subscales have been reported to range from 0.76 to 0.89. In addition, Brewer et al. (2008) reported internal consistency coefficients between 0.86 and 0.90 for the subscales and 0.86 for the total scale. In the Iranian context, Salimi et al. reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.89 for family support, 0.86 for friends’ support, and 0.82 for support from significant others. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the total MSPSS was 0.75. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 146.56, p < 0.001), and the KMO value was 0.78, indicating sufficient sampling adequacy. Scores ranging from 12 to 24 indicate low perceived social support, scores between 24 and 36 indicate moderate perceived social support, and scores above 36 indicate high perceived social support.

Cognitive Adaptability Questionnaire

Cognitive adaptability was measured using the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI), developed by Weinberger and Schwartz (1990). This psychometrically sound instrument assesses individual adjustment based on two core dimensions: emotional distress and self-restraint, which function as supraordinate dimensions in self-reported adjustment regulation. Using a typological approach, the WAI identifies three adjustment patterns: the “well-adjusted” type (low distress, high restraint), the “repressive” type (low distress, low restraint with repressive defense), and the “undercontrolled” type (high distress, low restraint). The short form of the WAI consists of 37 items and is grounded in theoretical models of emotional regulation and psychological defense mechanisms. It has been widely used in educational, clinical, and organizational research. In a psychometric evaluation conducted by Saeedi, Ghorbani, and Sarafraz (2016), the Persian version demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability, with confirmatory factor analysis indices indicating good model fit (CFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.05). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.87 for emotional distress, 0.82 for self-restraint, and 0.79 for repression. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the overall scale was 0.74. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 189.85, p < 0.001), and the KMO value was 0.63, confirming adequate sampling adequacy for factor analysis.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS for descriptive statistics and preliminary analyses, and AMOS software was employed for structural equation modeling. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch (Ethics Code: IR.IAU.TNB.REC.1404.240).

Results

Descriptive statistics, including the means and standard deviations of the study variables and their subscales, are presented in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the mean score of job satisfaction was 162.11 (SD = 30.75), while the mean score of cognitive adaptability was 111.16 (SD = 27.46). Perceived social support was highest for family support (M = 16.17, SD = 4.41), followed by friends (M = 15.37, SD = 4.59) and significant others (M = 14.91, SD = 2.98).

Based on the results presented in Table 1, the mean score of job satisfaction was 162.11, with a standard deviation of 30.75. Table 2 presents the results of the zero-order correlation matrix examining the relationships among the study variables for the total sample.

Note.
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

As shown in Table 2, job satisfaction exhibited positive and statistically significant correlations with most of the study variables (p < .01). However, for variables such as distress and repression, the correlations were significant and negative (p < .01). In addition, the magnitude of correlations among the exogenous variables ranged from 0.24 to a maximum of 0.35.

To test the study hypotheses, multiple regression analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using AMOS to evaluate the overall model fit. Prior to conducting regression analyses, the main statistical assumptions were examined. Data normality was assessed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and multicollinearity among the independent variables was evaluated by calculating Tolerance and the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). The results of these analyses are presented below at table 3.

As shown in Table 3, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test results were non-significant for all study variables (p > .05), indicating that job satisfaction, perceived social support, and cognitive adaptability were normally distributed. Therefore, the assumption of normality required for regression and structural equation modeling analyses was satisfied.

Table 3. Regression Analysis Predicting Cognitive Adaptability from Perceived Social Support

As shown in Table 3, all three sources of perceived social support significantly and positively predicted teachers’ cognitive adaptability. Specifically, family support (β = 0.30, p < .001), friends’ support (β = 0.124, p < .05), and support from significant others (β = 0.11, p < .05) were all significant predictors of cognitive adaptability. These findings indicate that higher levels of perceived social support are associated with greater cognitive adaptability among teachers. In terms of explanatory power, the model accounted for 63% of the variance in cognitive adaptability, demonstrating strong predictive capacity.

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Dependent variable: Job Satisfaction

As shown in Table 6, perceived social support from family, friends, and significant others, as well as cognitive adaptability, significantly and positively predicted job satisfaction. Cognitive adaptability exhibited the strongest direct effect on job satisfaction (β = 0.461, p < .001), followed by family support (β = 0.10, p < .05), friends’ support (β = 0.085, p < .05), and support from significant others (β = 0.078, p < .05). Overall, the model demonstrated strong explanatory power, accounting for 79% of the variance in job satisfaction.

As indicated in Table 7, cognitive adaptability partially mediated the relationship between perceived social support and job satisfaction. Family support exerted a significant positive indirect effect on job satisfaction through cognitive adaptability (β = 0.109, p = .003), indicating partial mediation. Similarly, friends’ support showed both a significant direct effect and a significant indirect effect via cognitive adaptability (β = 0.055, p = .034). Support from significant others also demonstrated a positive and significant indirect effect (β = 0.062, p = .013), confirming a partial mediating role of cognitive adaptability. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of cognitive adaptability in translating social support into higher job satisfaction.

Discussion

The results of the present study demonstrated that perceived social support from multiple sources—family (β = 0.10, p < .023), friends (β = 0.085, p < .045), and significant others (β = 0.078, p < .046)—exerts a positive and statistically significant direct effect on job satisfaction among physical education teachers. These findings are consistent with previous research by Lee et al. (2025), Smith et al. (2018, 2020), Kim et al. (2019, 2023), and Alghamdi et al. (2025), who conceptualize social support as an emotional buffer that mitigates occupational stress and burnout among teachers. Within the Iranian cultural context, the particularly salient role of family support reflects the collectivist orientation of society, where family relationships facilitate work–family balance and enhance teachers’ resilience against challenges such as long working hours and performance pressures in practical classroom settings. From a theoretical perspective, Cohen and Wills’ (1985) buffering hypothesis conceptualizes social support as a moderator of stress, while the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) model proposed by Bakker and Demerouti (2007) frames social support as a key resource that offsets the professional demands inherent in physical education teaching. In addition, Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll et al., 2017) suggests that social support preserves psychological resources, thereby enhancing job satisfaction, a pattern also observed in Schaufeli’s (2017) findings indicating incremental gains in satisfaction attributable to resource availability.

Regarding cognitive adaptability, perceived social support from all sources emerged as a positive predictor, collectively explaining 63% of its variance. This result aligns with prior studies by Alghamdi et al. (2025), Han et al. (2023), Bayanfar (2022), and Taylor (2022). Bandura’s (1991) social cognitive theory provides a relevant explanatory framework, proposing that supportive social environments enhance self-efficacy and adaptive cognitive functioning. Notably, cognitive adaptability itself (β = 0.461, p < .001) was identified as the strongest predictor of job satisfaction, with the overall model explaining 79% of the variance in job satisfaction. This finding is consistent with the work of Ortan et al. (2021) and Dubey and Mishra (2016), and is theoretically grounded in Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) stress–coping model, which posits that adaptive cognitive appraisal enables individuals to reinterpret occupational stressors as opportunities for growth rather than threats.

The mediation analysis further revealed that perceived social support enhances job satisfaction indirectly through cognitive adaptability, indicating a pattern of partial mediation. The overall structural model demonstrated excellent fit indices (RMSEA = 0.027; CFI = 0.98), corroborating findings reported by Hollemann et al. (2018) and Zhou et al. (2024). Theoretical perspectives on social support (Cobb, 1976) and cognitive adaptation (Taylor, 1983) jointly explain this mechanism, while Hobfoll’s (1989) Conservation of Resources framework conceptualizes social support and family emotional climate as protective psychological resources that buffer stress and facilitate occupational well-being. Collectively, these findings underscore the pivotal role of cognitive adaptability in transforming external social resources into enhanced job satisfaction, particularly within the high-stress profession of physical education teaching.

Overall, the findings indicate that perceived social support strengthens physical education teachers’ job satisfaction through the partial mediating role of cognitive adaptability. This integrated model highlights the importance of emotional–cognitive resources within the Iranian educational context and provides a useful framework for policy development aimed at reducing burnout and enhancing professional sustainability. The prominence of family support within a collectivist culture suggests that interventions should prioritize work–family balance initiatives.

Despite the robustness of the data, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the focus on physical education teachers in non-governmental schools limits the generalizability of the findings to other educational disciplines or public-sector settings, where organizational structures and professional demands may differ. Second, the cross-sectional design, although efficient, restricts strong causal inferences and precludes examination of temporal changes, such as the long-term effects of social support on job satisfaction. Third, reliance on self-report questionnaires increases susceptibility to social desirability bias, while the absence of observational methods or qualitative interviews limits the depth and diversity of the data.

From a practical standpoint, administrators of non-governmental schools may enhance teachers’ job satisfaction by implementing supportive programs such as family counseling sessions or work–family balance workshops, with particular emphasis on strengthening family-based emotional support to alleviate occupational stress. Furthermore, to capitalize on the mediating role of cognitive adaptability, incorporating cognitive–behavioral skills training—such as cognitive restructuring and stress management—into professional development programs, alongside joint awareness initiatives involving teachers and parents to foster a positive family emotional climate, may enhance teachers’ resilience and sustain job satisfaction. Finally, educational policymakers can maximize the indirect effects of social support by strengthening organizational support mechanisms, including flexible leave policies for family-related activities and the establishment of peer support networks within schools. Future research is encouraged to replicate this model across other occupational groups, such as teachers in different disciplines or employees in healthcare and industrial sectors, to examine its generalizability further.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that perceived social support significantly enhances job satisfaction among physical education teachers, both directly and indirectly through cognitive adaptability. Support from family, friends, and significant others functions not only as an emotional buffer against occupational stress but also as a contextual resource that promotes adaptive cognitive functioning. Within the Iranian cultural context, the prominent role of family support reflects collectivist values and highlights the importance of work–family balance in sustaining teachers’ professional well-being.

Cognitive adaptability emerged as the strongest predictor of job satisfaction, underscoring its critical role in enabling teachers to reinterpret job demands, manage stress, and maintain engagement in high-pressure educational environments. The partial mediation effect observed supports integrative theoretical frameworks, including the Job Demands–Resources model and Conservation of Resources theory, which emphasize the interaction between external social resources and internal psychological capacities.

Overall, these findings suggest that interventions aimed at improving teachers’ job satisfaction should combine social support enhancement with strategies that strengthen cognitive adaptability, thereby promoting resilience and long-term professional sustainability.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all physical education teachers who participated in this study and the educational district administrators who facilitated data collection. We also appreciate the assistance of colleagues who provided feedback on the questionnaire administration and study procedures.

Ethical Consideration

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch (Ethics Code: IR.IAU.TNB.REC.1404.240). The online record of the ethical approval is also available on the Iranian National Research Ethics System for Biomedical Research website. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee and with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality considerations (including protection of participants’ privacy), but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request, subject to approval by the relevant ethics committee and compliance with applicable data-protection requirements.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained electronically from all participants before data collection. Participation was voluntary, and respondents were informed that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. No identifying information was collected, and responses were analyzed in aggregate form.

Author Contributions

MA, N: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data curation; Investigation; Writing—original draft. AJ, S: Supervision; Methodology; Formal analysis; Writing—review & editing. M S, K: Conceptualization; Validation; Writing—review & editing.

Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Statement

AI-assisted tools (including large language models) were used to support English-language editing and clarity of presentation. The authors reviewed, edited, and verified all content and take full responsibility for the accuracy, integrity, and originality of the final manuscript. No AI tool was used to generate or manipulate the study data, analyses, or results.