The Structural Model of Resilience Based on Role Overload and Job Stress with the Mediation of Difficulty in Emotion Regulation

Introduction

In today's business world, human resources are considered the most crucial factor in the success and survival of organizations, driving the organization's momentum to ensure its continuation and prevent its decline. Currently, having an efficient and motivated workforce is regarded as one of the most significant assets of any organization. Paying attention to their values and needs is the most effective step in achieving organizational goals (Dotan, 2013, as cited in Shirazi, Shojaian, & Gholami, 2019). The role of resilience in the adaptation of military and law enforcement personnel has significantly increased, leading to higher productivity among personnel. Situations such as emergencies and ambiguity, physical challenges, sleep deprivation, and caloric restrictions can cause psychological stress. The nature of such operations requires military personnel to enhance their readiness and flexibility to an optimal level (Romeny & McAfee, 2023). Accordingly, research highlights resilience as one of the components of cognitive readiness, particularly in military occupations, where individuals with high levels of resilience can continue their efforts and effective coping when faced with adverse and stressful conditions, leading to success through overcoming life's challenges (Arvand, Angzi, & Hayati, 2023).

Numerous studies have shown that policing is considered a highly stressful profession (Jeong & Lee, 2023; Lambert et al., 2022). In fact, stress is an inseparable part of military personnel's work because law enforcement officers often face stressful situations in their daily work. Irregular and long working hours, hierarchical structures, and dangerous missions significantly impact their physical and mental well-being, as well as their family relationships (Bahmani, Molai, & Babaei, 2021). The work environment can be seen as a source of stress, and if the workplace also presents problems such as economic pressures, communication issues with colleagues and supervisors, and lack of promotion opportunities, job dissatisfaction and work-related problems are inevitable. This dissatisfaction and the pressures and tensions resulting from it will spill over into the safe and constructive environment of the family, affecting other aspects of psychosocial life and leading to irreparable harm (Moradi & Keshavarz Afshar, 2021).

Many military personnel face role overload due to work pressures and the extensive responsibilities and duties assigned to them, which can negatively impact not only their work performance but also other aspects of their individual and social lives (Pooladi Kharasha & Esmaeili Shad, 2018). The breadth of tasks and organizational activities can also, in turn, reduce job control, defined as mastery over the environment. Unlike role overload, which is a source of job stress, job control helps reduce tension in the workplace, increases a sense of efficacy, and ultimately leads to job satisfaction (Häusser, Rietold, & Wandschneider, 2017).

Today, the concept of work and employment, in addition to meeting material needs, also fulfills psychological needs. One factor that can serve as a facilitator and protective agent against greater vulnerability in such situations is self-compassion. Having self-compassion can enhance adaptive coping skills (Kriwosak et al., 2022). On the other hand, the tension and stress resulting from participation in various operations sometimes emotionally and psychologically affect military personnel. The ability to control emotions and use adaptive emotion regulation strategies can play a crucial role in reducing the psychosocial vulnerability of military personnel (Thompson, 2023). In this regard, research has shown that difficulty in emotion regulation and repetitive negative thoughts are considered threats to the mental health of law enforcement personnel, and utilizing skills related to regulating and managing unhealthy thoughts and emotions can prevent many mental health-related threats (Hatamian, Suri, & Kolivand, 2022).

Therefore, the police profession and military personnel, due to the sensitivity of their work, the dangers involved, frequent changes, and the possibility of unforeseen incidents, can be categorized as vulnerable groups in any society. These individuals play a key role in maintaining peace and security within the country and preventing external threats. Desired job outcomes and societal security can only be expected when factors related to psychological health and effective job-related variables are identified. Accordingly, the present study aims to develop a structural model of resilience based on role overload, job stress, and job control, considering the mediating role of self-compassion and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

Methods and Materials

Study Design and Participants

The present study was descriptive-correlational and utilized structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of all special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City in 2022, totaling 413 individuals. The research sample was selected using a convenience (voluntary) sampling method, and based on the sample size determination table by Morgan and Krejcie (1970), a sample size of 200 participants was considered. The inclusion criteria for the study were membership in the special unit of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, complete participation in the research tools, the ability to communicate, and informed consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria included a lack of willingness to continue participation at any stage of the research, incomplete completion of research tools, and actions to transfer to another service location.

Ethical considerations must be observed at all stages of research, from planning to implementation and publication. The use of human participants in research is common among researchers, and several ethical principles must be adhered to in relation to participants. These ethical principles include informed and voluntary consent to participate in the research, the right to withdraw from the research, non-disclosure of information, protection of privacy/confidentiality, avoidance of any harm and potential risks (psychological, physical, social, economic, and legal) to participants, avoidance of discrimination, and providing clear and useful explanations to participants on how to complete research tools. Participants were also informed that, as a token of appreciation for their cooperation, those who wish to know their test results could provide their name or a pseudonym on the questionnaire, and the researcher would inform them of the results.

Measures

Resilience

This questionnaire was developed by Connor and Davidson (2003) through a review of research literature from 1991 to 1979 in the field of resilience. The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) includes 10 items scored on a Likert scale ranging from zero (never) to five (almost always). This is a unidimensional scale, with possible scores ranging from a minimum of 10 to a maximum of 50. A score between 10 and 17 indicates a low level of resilience, a score between 17 and 34 indicates a moderate level of resilience, and a score above 34 indicates a high level of resilience. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by experts, and its reliability was obtained using Cronbach's alpha with a value of 0.70 (Kiahan et al., 2014).

Role Overload

This questionnaire was developed by Rodd et al. (2008) and consists of 3 items scored on a 7-point Likert scale, where "strongly agree" receives a score of 7, "agree" a score of 6, "somewhat agree" a score of 5, "neutral" a score of 4, "somewhat disagree" a score of 3, "disagree" a score of 2, and "strongly disagree" a score of 1 (Hosseinzadeh Ghalehno & colleagues, 2019). To assess reliability, the creators examined Cronbach's alpha, obtaining a value of 0.70, and assessed criterion validity, finding significant correlations with organizational commitment (r = 0.36) and job satisfaction (r = 0.38) at the 0.01 level (Rodd et al., 2008). The psychometric properties of the questionnaire were also examined in Iran, showing good reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.79 and a composite reliability coefficient of 0.77 (Hamedi & Esmaeili Shad, 2018). Additionally, in another study, Cronbach's alpha for the three items was found to be 0.75 (Golparvar et al., 2011).

Job Stress

The standardized Job Stress Questionnaire was developed by Orly and Giordano in 1980 and includes 14 items and four subscales: work urgency (6 items), body competition (4 items), hustle (2 items), and working without proper planning (2 items). The scoring method for each item ranges from "never" to "almost always," with scores assigned as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The total score range is between 14 and 70, with lower scores indicating less job stress. Orly and Giordano reported satisfactory validity for this questionnaire, with reliability, based on Cronbach's alpha, reported as above 0.90. In Mahmoudpour et al.'s (2020) study, Cronbach's alpha was used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, yielding a value of 0.85. In Najafpour Tayola's (2015) study, Cronbach's alpha for this questionnaire was estimated at 0.83.

Difficulty in Emotion Regulation

This scale is a shortened version of the Difficulty in Emotion Regulation Scale developed by Gratz and Roemer. Jorberg et al. (2016), recognizing the clinical applicability and efficacy of this scale in psychological treatment planning, created a 16-item version by removing the awareness subscale and reducing the number of items from 36 to 16. This questionnaire includes five subscales: lack of emotional clarity (items 1 and 2), difficulty engaging in goal-directed behavior (items 7 and 15), difficulty controlling impulsive behaviors (items 8-11), limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies (items 5, 6, 12, 14, and 16), and non-acceptance of emotional responses (items 9, 10, and 13). The scale is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "almost never" (1 point) to "almost always" (5 points). The results of Jorberg et al.'s (2016) study showed that this scale has good reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.94. To assess the validity of the DERS-SF, internal consistency was examined using Cronbach's alpha. The results indicated that this scale has good reliability (Cronbach's alpha for the lack of clarity subscale = 0.77, goal-directed behavior subscale = 0.68, impulsive behavior control subscale = 0.70, limited access to strategies subscale = 0.74, non-acceptance subscale = 0.71, and overall scale = 0.91). Furthermore, divergent validity was examined by correlating the DERS-SF with the Five-Factor Personality Inventory (short form). The findings indicated that this instrument effectively measures difficulty in emotion regulation as a five-dimensional construct (Fallahi et al., 2021).

Data analysis

For data analysis, descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used, while inferential statistics, including Pearson's correlation coefficient and structural equation modeling, were employed to examine the relationships between variables, adhering to the research assumptions. Model fit indices were used to evaluate the proposed model's fit, and data analysis was conducted using SPSS and AMOS software, version 24.

Findings and Results

According to the results, 143 participants (64.12%) were between 19 to 24 years old, 54 participants (24.21%) were between 25 to 30 years old, 12 participants (5.38%) were between 31 to 36 years old, 11 participants (4.93%) were between 37 to 42 years old, and 3 participants (1.35%) were 43 years old or older. The mean age of the respondents was 24.99 years, with a standard deviation of 5.203. Regarding education levels, 183 participants (82.1%) had a high school diploma, 21 participants (9.4%) had an associate degree, 14 participants (6.3%) had a bachelor's degree, 4 participants (1.8%) had a master's degree, and 1 participant (0.4%) had a doctoral degree.

Table 1 presents the number, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation of the research variables. The number of participants was 223. For conducting structural equation modeling using parametric methods, the assumption of normality of the data and variables is necessary. To assess univariate normality, skewness and kurtosis were examined, and for multivariate normality, the Mardia index was used.

The obtained values for the Mardia coefficient and the critical ratio must be less than 5 to indicate multivariate normality in the score distribution.

According to the results, the skewness and kurtosis values of the research variables fall within the range of -2 to 2. Therefore, in this study, the Mardia coefficient was 2.632, and the critical ratio was 1.255, indicating the assumption of multivariate normality in the distribution of scores. Hence, structural equation modeling can be used, and the results of these statistical tests are reliable.

If the Durbin-Watson statistic falls between 1.5 and 2.5, the independence of errors can be accepted. As the Durbin-Watson statistics fall within this range, indicating the independence of errors, structural equation modeling can be used, and the results of these statistical tests are reliable. The results showed that none of the tolerance statistics values were below the acceptable threshold of 0.1, and none of the variance inflation factor (VIF) values exceeded the acceptable limit of 10. Since no multicollinearity was observed among the predictor variables, parametric tests such as Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling can be applied, and the results are reliable.

All p<0.01

Table 2 shows the correlation matrix between the research variables. There is a significant positive correlation between job control and resilience (p < .01). There is a significant negative correlation between role overload, job stress, and difficulty in emotion regulation with resilience (p < .01). The proposed structural model of the research is discussed next.

In this study, the parameter estimation method used was Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE). According to the results of the fitted model in Table 3, as observed, most of the indices are satisfactory. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) should be below 0.08. In this study, the RMSEA was 0.029, which, according to Kline's model (2023), indicates a good model fit. Therefore, it can be concluded that the model has a very good fit with the data and is appropriate. Figure 1 presents the fitted research model.

Figure 1 shows the structural and fitted model, which explains 88% of resilience by role overload, job stress, and job control with the mediation of self-compassion and difficulty in emotion regulation. Thus, the overall hypothesis that the structural model of resilience based on role overload and job stress, considering the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, has a good fit, was confirmed.

As shown in Table 4, the standard and direct coefficient of role overload (β = -0.349, p = 0.009) on resilience was significant. The standard and direct coefficient of job stress (β = -0.513, p = 0.001) on resilience was significant. The standard and direct coefficient of difficulty in emotion regulation (β = -0.380, p = 0.005) on resilience was significant. The standard and direct coefficient of role overload (β = 0.564, p = 0.001) on difficulty in emotion regulation was significant. The standard and direct coefficient of job stress (β = 0.491, p = 0.001) on difficulty in emotion regulation was significant.

To determine the significance of role overload on resilience through the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation, the bootstrapping method with 5,000 resamples was used with a 95% confidence interval. According to Table 5, the bootstrapping results are presented. In this method, if both the upper and lower bounds of the test are either positive or negative and zero is not between these bounds, the indirect causal path will be significant. Thus, there is an indirect relationship between role overload and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City. Similarly, an indirect relationship between job stress and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City was confirmed.

Discussion and Conclusion

The results indicated that the structural model of resilience based on role overload and job stress, considering the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, has a good fit. There is no existing research that confirms the structural model of resilience based on role overload and job stress with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation in this specific population, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. To explain this result, it can be said that role overload refers to the abundance of tasks or, in other words, the heaviness and excessiveness of duties within a social position. Additionally, overload is one of the stress-inducing factors in work and organizational environments, which strongly affects the psychological states and attitudes of employees. Role overload disrupts professional security, leading to physical and psychological imbalance, and consequently, it creates destructive effects on work outcomes such as work quality, performance ability, and goal attainment, resulting in decreased motivation, reduced self-confidence, job dissatisfaction, and diminished control capacity (Chang & Hancock, 2003).

On the other hand, employees who suffer from role overload, meaning they are unable to perform tasks to the extent of their skills or efforts, experience job stress. Employees with higher job stress are unable to exercise job control, which refers to control over work processes, i.e., the ability to make decisions and the opportunity to exert control over the work to accomplish it. Therefore, role overload combined with job stress and poor job control leads employees to engage in more self-criticism (weak self-compassion) and inability to manage and regulate emotions. As research has shown, self-compassion fosters resilience in employees (Leibiburi et al., 2020; Neff & McGee, 2010), and those with lower emotional regulation abilities have difficulty managing their emotions, which leads to maladaptive strategies for responding to emotions (Springsteen & English, 2024; Kilic et al., 2024). They are less capable of demonstrating resilience and perseverance when facing job challenges and difficulties (Sotiriadis & Galanakis, 2022). Therefore, it is logical to state that the structural model of resilience based on role overload, job stress, and job control, considering the mediating role of self-compassion and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, has a good fit.

The results showed that the direct and standard coefficient of role overload on resilience was significant. There is no existing research showing a relationship between role overload and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Abhari and Esmaeili Shad (2018) and Rezaei and Esmaeili Shad (2018). To explain this result, it can be said that role overload inherently involves the accumulation and aggregation of work roles beyond the individual's available resources, leading to gradual burnout. Overload occurs when employees feel they lack the necessary ability to complete their tasks effectively, regardless of the time available, and performance standards are extremely challenging. In other words, overload occurs when employees believe they are unable to perform tasks effectively within the limits of their skills and efforts. Role overload also arises from the interaction between the individual and the external environment. The absolute level of work that must be done is modified by individual characteristics to determine perceived or subjective overload. Therefore, when an employee is unable to perform tasks effectively within the limits of their skills and efforts, they cannot adequately cope with job challenges and difficulties, resulting in lower resilience compared to their colleagues in the workplace. Thus, it is logical to state that there is a relationship between role overload and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The results showed that the direct and standard coefficient of job stress on resilience was significant. There is no existing research showing a relationship between job stress and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Firoozkouhi Berenj Abadi and Pourhossein (2022), Rancher and Moreland (2023), and Tan et al. (2024). To explain this result, it can be said that according to Karasek's demand-control model (1979; as cited in Samadizad et al., 2020), jobs with high job stress and low control lead to the emergence of psychological and physical distress. Such work environments ultimately deplete employees' emotional and psychological resources, making burnout likely and causing employees to experience lower resilience in their professional lives due to the physical and psychological consequences of job stress. Therefore, it is logical to state that there is a relationship between job stress and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The results showed that the direct and standard coefficient of difficulty in emotion regulation on resilience was significant. There is no existing research showing a relationship between difficulty in emotion regulation and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Sotiriadis and Galanakis (2022). To explain this result, it can be said that, according to Gratz and Roemer's theory, adaptive responses to emotions focus primarily on understanding, accepting, effectively using, and modulating emotions (Toll et al., 2020). According to this theory, adaptive responses help in the functional use of emotions as information and in achieving valuable actions and desired goals (Gratz et al., 2020). Therefore, employees who have greater difficulty in regulating and managing their emotions are less capable of facing job challenges and difficulties. Thus, it is logical to state that there is a relationship between difficulty in emotion regulation and resilience among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The results showed that the direct and standard coefficient of role overload on difficulty in emotion regulation was significant. There is no existing research showing a relationship between role overload and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Abhari and Esmaeili Shad (2018) and Rezaei and Esmaeili Shad (2018). To explain this result, it can be said that role overload (workload) refers to the demands of the job placed on the employee and is a primary factor in creating psychological stress in the workplace. On the other hand, it can be said that tensions arising from daily job issues have harmful effects on the physical and psychological health of employees. When these tensions intensify or when individuals perceive stress negatively for various reasons, their health and performance are affected, and in such situations, they find it difficult to manage and regulate their emotions when dealing with work-related stress and tension. Therefore, it is logical to state that there is a relationship between role overload and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The results showed that the direct and standard coefficient of job stress on difficulty in emotion regulation was significant. There is no existing research showing a relationship between job stress and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Firoozkouhi Berenj Abadi and Pourhossein (2022), Rancher and Moreland (2023), and Tan et al. (2024). To explain this result, it can be said that according to Karasek's demand-control theory, jobs associated with high job stress lead to the emergence of psychological and physical distress. Such work environments eventually deplete employees' emotional and psychological resources and may trigger job stress symptoms in the workplace (Tummers et al., 2002). Therefore, when employees experience more job stress than others, they have less ability to manage their emotions when dealing with work-related stress and tension. Therefore, it is logical to state that there is a relationship between job stress and difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The indirect relationship between role overload and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City was confirmed. There is no existing research showing an indirect relationship between role overload and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Sotiriadis and Galanakis (2022), Abhari and Esmaeili Shad (2018), and Rezaei and Esmaeili Shad (2018). To explain this result, it can be said that individuals under psychological pressure and work stress may experience this pressure due to a high workload. In such conditions, where there is a high workload and role overload in the job, employees may feel that they are unable to perform tasks effectively within the limits of their skills and efforts and cannot effectively fulfill their role. Such conditions cause difficulty in emotion regulation and poor management of emotions, leading to lower resilience when facing work-related stress and challenges. Resilience refers to an individual's ability to cope with negative emotions and return to normal capacity after encountering difficult situations and challenging circumstances. Therefore, it is logical to state that there is an indirect relationship between role overload and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

The indirect relationship between job stress and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City was confirmed. There is no existing research showing an indirect relationship between job stress and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City, so the alignment or misalignment of this result with previous research findings is unclear. However, this result may align with the findings of Rancher and Moreland (2023), Tan et al. (2024), and Sotiriadis and Galanakis (2022). To explain this result, it can be said that job stress is a natural response to the challenges and demands of the work environment, which can negatively impact the physical and mental health of employees. Job stress is a natural reaction to work environment pressures. This reaction can manifest as physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms, and if these negative symptoms persist, they lead to poor emotion regulation and difficulty in managing emotions. This emotional dysregulation and difficulty in emotion regulation is a transdiagnostic factor characterized by the inability to accept emotional responses or distress, difficulty engaging in goal-directed behaviors, lack of emotional awareness, impulse control issues (Ertan et al., 2022), lack of emotional clarity, and limited access to emotion regulation strategies (Smith et al., 2023). Therefore, this difficulty in emotion regulation is described as maladaptive patterns that employees experience when facing stressful conditions (Thompson, 2019), which causes employees to demonstrate lower resilience when dealing with work-related stress and challenges. Therefore, it is logical to state that there is an indirect relationship between job stress and resilience with the mediating role of difficulty in emotion regulation among the special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City.

Limitations & Suggestions

Despite the strengths of this study, such as examining mediating processes and the direction of direct and indirect effects, the results should be interpreted with some limitations in mind. First, the present study used self-report scales and questionnaires. Another important limitation of this research that should be noted is the lack of awareness regarding the current sample (special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City). This study only identified age and education as demographic characteristics. Therefore, the scope of the population in this study may raise questions about the generalizability of the findings. The limitations of this study are mainly related to its cross-sectional nature. Data collection was a one-time event, and as a result, the data lacks temporal depth, while scores can easily change significantly from year to year depending on personal circumstances. Future studies should identify more demographic characteristics of these individuals, such as family conditions, geographical location, and socioeconomic status, to determine how these factors can influence the results of such studies. This study also included a sample population of special unit employees of the Law Enforcement Command of Tehran City. It is recommended that this study be conducted on special unit employees in other cities as well, as resilience among employees can vary across cultures and ethnic and racial differences. Identifying the factors that affect the resilience of special unit employees in the context of modeling studies is important.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to all those who cooperated in carrying out this study.

Declaration of Interest

The authors of this article declared no conflict of interest.

Ethical Considerations

The study protocol adhered to the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration, which provides guidelines for ethical research involving human participants.

Transparency of Data

In accordance with the principles of transparency and open research, we declare that all data and materials used in this study are available upon request.

Funding

This research was carried out independently with personal funding and without the financial support of any governmental or private institution or organization.

Authors’ Contributions

All authors equally contributed in this article.