International Journal of Sport Studies for Health

Effects of Different Rest-Time Models on Neuromuscular and Performance Outcomes during Short High-Intensity Interval Training in Male Soccer Players

Reza Abedinpour ^* iD , Hadi Nobari iD

Objective: Short-interval high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is widely used in soccer conditioning, yet it remains unclear whether distributing recovery periods differently within a session influences neuromuscular and performance adaptations. This study compared ascending, descending, and constant rest-time models during short-interval HIIT in semi-professional male soccer players.

Methods: Twenty-four players were stratified by playing position and randomly allocated to ascending-rest (A-HIIT), descending-rest (D-HIIT), or constant-rest (C-HIIT) groups (n = 8 each). Participants completed eight preseason HIIT sessions, performed twice weekly. Each session comprised two sets of seven 30-s shuttle-running bouts prescribed relative to individual 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test velocity. Recovery duration increased progressively in A-HIIT, decreased progressively in D-HIIT, and remained constant in C-HIIT, while total work and recovery time were matched across protocols. Countermovement jump (CMJ), 30-m sprint, 5-0-5 change-of-direction (COD), and Wingate peak power were assessed before and after training. Within-group changes were analysed using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and between-group differences in change scores using Kruskal–Wallis tests, with Holm correction for multiple comparisons.

Results: All participants completed the intervention, although valid observations varied by outcome because of incomplete or unusable post-intervention data. Before correction, nominally significant within-group changes were observed for CMJ height, sprint time, right- and left-leg COD times, and Wingate peak power (unadjusted p = 0.012–0.046). These changes reflected an improvement only in CMJ height in D-HIIT; the significant sprint, COD, and Wingate changes represented performance decrements. However, none remained statistically significant after Holm correction (adjusted p = 0.180–0.460). No significant between-group differences were found for any outcome (p = 0.191–0.914).

Conclusion: Ascending, descending, and constant recovery distributions produced limited and broadly comparable neuromuscular and performance responses, with no evidence that any protocol was superior. Given the small sample, short intervention, and absence of a non-HIIT control group, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary and hypothesis-generating.

Structural Relationships Between Physical Education Course Happiness, Peer Relationships, and School Satisfaction: A Mediation Model Analysis

Mehmet Akarsu iD , İsmail İLBAK ^* iD , Mehmet Güllü iD , Zeliha Akarsu iD , Talip Çelik iD , Ratko Pavlović iD , Nikola Radulović iD , Ilona Mihajlović iD

Objective: The emotional and social processes students experience in school life, beyond their academic performance, are fundamental components of their overall well-being. Physical education classes provide a unique learning environment with opportunities for positive emotions, social interaction, and peer relationships, contributing to students’ broader school experiences. However, the social processes underlying the association between happiness experienced in physical education classes and school satisfaction remain insufficiently understood. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between physical education course happiness and school satisfaction among middle school students and investigated whether peer relationships statistically mediated this association.

Methods and Materials: We used a correlational design with 614 volunteer students aged 10–15 years from four middle schools in Malatya, Türkiye. Physical education course happiness was specified as the predictor, school satisfaction as the outcome, and peer relationships as the mediator.

Findings: The findings revealed significant positive direct associations between physical education course happiness and peer relationships (β = .268, p < .001) and between physical education course happiness and school satisfaction (β = .124, p < .001), as well as a significant positive association between peer relationships and school satisfaction (β = .462, p < .001). Furthermore, the indirect association between physical education course happiness and school satisfaction through peer relationships was statistically significant (β = .124, p < .001), while the total association was also positive and significant (β = .248, p < .001). The proposed model explained 25.9% of the variance in school satisfaction.

Conclusion: These findings indicate that greater happiness in physical education is associated with higher school satisfaction both directly and indirectly through more positive peer relationships. Given the cross-sectional correlational design, these pathways should be interpreted as statistical associations rather than evidence of causal relationships.

Effects of a Hybrid Immersive Virtual Reality and Conventional Football Training Program on Passing Performance, Decision-Making, and Game Performance in Undergraduate Physical Education Students

Amir Supriadi ^* iD , Francis Ries iD , Serhii Kozin iD , Muhammad Reza Destya iD

Background: Immersive virtual reality may provide representative and controllable opportunities for football decision practice, but its contribution cannot be inferred when it replaces rather than supplements conventional field training. This trial compared a hybrid immersive-VR and conventional football program with a time-matched conventional program in undergraduate physical education students.

Materials and Methods: Seventy-two undergraduate students were randomized to either a hybrid training group (n = 36), which completed 30 minutes of conventional football practice followed by 30 minutes of immersive VR-based perception–action training per session, or a control group (n = 36), which completed 60 minutes of conventional football practice. Both groups trained three times weekly for eight weeks (24 scheduled sessions). Outcomes were assessed at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a four-week follow-up using Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) completion time, decision-making accuracy and reaction time, and the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI). Intrinsic motivation was assessed only after the intervention using the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI).

Results: Significant Group × Time interactions were observed for LSPT completion time (F = 438.08, p < .001, ηp² = .862), decision-making accuracy (F = 715.31, p < .001, ηp² = .911), decision-making reaction time (F = 845.37, p < .001, ηp² = .924), and GPAI scores (F = 441.55, p < .001, ηp² = .863). These interactions indicate that outcome trajectories differed between the hybrid and conventional training packages; they do not isolate a VR-specific effect. Mean performance values in the hybrid group remained close to post-intervention levels at the four-week follow-up; Bonferroni-adjusted post-intervention versus follow-up contrasts indicated small changes across the four-week follow-up, with 95% confidence intervals reported in Table 8. The hybrid group also reported higher post-intervention IMI scores than the control group (p < .001, Cohen’s d = 3.08); because IMI was not assessed at baseline, this finding represents a post-intervention group difference rather than a demonstrated improvement in motivation.

Conclusions: A time-matched hybrid curriculum was associated with different trajectories in the reported performance outcomes compared with conventional practice alone. The trial evaluates the complete hybrid package and does not establish an independent VR effect. The four-week observations suggest short-term persistence, although unmeasured football and physical activity during the follow-up interval limit interpretation as definitive motor-learning retention.

Outdoor Activity-Based Physical Education and Wearable Technology for Student Fitness and Well-Being Support

Andry Akhiruyanto ^* iD , Hernawan iD , Sandey Tantra Paramitha iD , Moch. Fahmi Abdulaziz iD , La Ode Adhi Virama iD , Dewangga Yudhistira iD

Objectives: Physical inactivity among adolescents is a critical global health issue, with over 80% of adolescents failing to meet WHO recommendations for daily physical activity. While conventional physical education (PE) contributes to student health, there remains a need for pedagogical innovation that enhances objective monitoring and deeper student engagement. An outdoor activity-based PE approach integrated with wearable technology offers a promising model within the framework of achieving SDG 3. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a physical education program based on outdoor activities integrated with wearable technology in improving the physical fitness and psychological well-being of high school students.

Methods: A pretest–posttest quasi-experimental design with a control group was applied to 30 male students at State Senior High School 12 Semarang, divided equally into an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15) using ordinal pairing based on initial Harvard Fitness Index (HFI) scores. The experimental group participated in a structured outdoor physical education program for eight weeks (3 sessions/week, 50–65 minutes/session) using Polar Watch devices. Psychological well-being was measured using the Indonesian adaptation of Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Scale (RPWB; 6 dimensions), and physical fitness was assessed via the Harvard Step Test (HFI). Data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test and the Mann-Whitney U Test (α = 0.05).

Results: All variables in the experimental group showed statistically significant improvements (p < 0.05) with moderate to large effect sizes: total well-being score (W = 0.0; Z = −3.41; p = 0.001; r = 0.604), all six RPWB dimensions (r = 0.376–0.548), and HFI (W = 0.0; Z = −3.40; p = 0.001; r = 0.602). The proportion of students categorized as Good fitness increased from 0% to 46.7%, and the Low Well-being category disappeared entirely in the post-test. Notably, the control group also showed significant within-group improvements across all variables, confirming that regular physical education also produced meaningful benefits. There were no significant differences in gains between groups (p > 0.05) for seven of eight outcomes; the only significant between-group difference was in Environmental Mastery, which favored the control group (p = 0.011).

Conclusion: An outdoor activity-based physical education program integrated with wearable technology was associated with significant improvements in psychological well-being and physical fitness within the experimental group of male high school students. However, the absence of significant between-group differences indicates that structured physical activity in any format—whether outdoor or conventional—can provide meaningful health benefits for adolescents. Although wearable technology may have supported objective monitoring and self-regulatory awareness during the program, its independent contribution to outcome improvements could not be established in this study.

Development and Initial Validation of a Sensor-Based Motor Tracking Device for Measuring Early Childhood Motor Skills

Anton Komaini ^* iD , Agus Rusdiana iD , Surya Adi Saputra iD , Jaffry Bin Zakaria iD , Novadri Ayubi iD

Objective: This study aims to design a sensor-based motor tracking device and conduct initial validation to measure motor skills in early childhood.

Methods: This study employed a Research and Development (R&D) methodology. Three experts, competent in their respective fields, focused on motor skills, media, and measurement testing, participated. The validation test aimed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the designed product. Following the validation test, the resulting product was field tested. During the field test, two children, a male and a female, aged 5-6, accompanied by their parents, participated in the study.

Results: The results of the trial and validity test by experts reported that the validity test by media experts obtained a feasibility level included in the valid category, the validity test by motor skills experts obtained a feasibility level in the valid category, and the validity test by test and measurement experts obtained a feasibility level included in the valid category. Furthermore, the results of this study reported that the sensor-based motor tracking tool for measuring early childhood motor skills is valid and suitable for use for motor skills. This tool is also very useful for teachers, lecturers, and sports practitioners as it can help in the process of measuring early childhood motor skills.

Conclusions: This research successfully developed a prototype sensor-based motor tracking device designed to measure motor skills in early childhood. Initial validation results by experts showed that the developed instrument met validity criteria in terms of media, motor skills, and testing and measurement. These findings indicate that the proposed device has the potential to be used as a practical and effective tool to support the assessment process of children's motor development by teachers, lecturers, and sports practitioners.

Effects of Random Visual Stimulus Training on Anticipation, Reaction Time, and Stroke Accuracy in Competitive Table Tennis Players

Teguh Santosa ^* iD , Shodiq Hutomono iD , Zhanneta Kozina iD , Fatkhul Imron iD , ⁠ Widha Srianto iD

Background and Purpose:

Modern table tennis requires rapid perceptual-cognitive processing and adaptive motor responses under highly dynamic and time-constrained conditions. Anticipation ability, visuomotor reaction time, and stroke accuracy are considered essential determinants of successful performance in competitive play. However, evidence regarding the integrated effects of sport-specific random visual stimulus training on these interrelated performance components remains limited. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of random visual stimulus training on anticipation ability, reaction time, and stroke accuracy in competitive table tennis players.

Materials and Methods:

A randomized pretest–posttest control group experimental design was employed involving 36 competitive table tennis players (age: 18–24 years). Participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 18) or a control group (n = 18). The experimental group completed an eight-week random visual stimulus training program in addition to conventional table tennis practice, whereas the control group performed conventional training only. Anticipation ability was assessed using a sport-specific temporal occlusion test, visuomotor reaction time was measured using the FITLIGHT Trainer™ system, and stroke accuracy was evaluated through a standardized target accuracy protocol. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures MANOVA and follow-up repeated-measures ANOVA with significance established at p < 0.05.

Results:

The experimental group demonstrated greater improvements in anticipation ability, reaction time, and stroke accuracy compared with the control group following the intervention period. Significant time × group interaction effects were identified for anticipation performance (p < 0.001), reaction time (p < 0.001), and stroke accuracy (p < 0.001). The experimental group showed substantial increases in anticipation accuracy and stroke performance, accompanied by a marked reduction in visuomotor reaction time. In addition, multivariate analysis revealed moderate-to-large intervention effects across all dependent variables (partial η² = 0.463–0.702).

Conclusions:

Random visual stimulus training was associated with improvements in anticipation ability, visuomotor reaction time, and stroke accuracy in competitive table tennis players. The findings suggest that integrating sport-specific perceptual-cognitive training into routine practice environments may contribute to enhanced perceptual-motor responsiveness and technical execution under dynamic competitive conditions. These results support the application of perception–action coupling approaches within contemporary table tennis athlete development programs.

Executive and Motor Function Responses to Brain Gym and Aerobic Exercise in Girls With ADHD

Naemeh Akhundi iD , Negar Arazeshi ^* iD , Keyvan Molanorouzi iD

Objective: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly accompanied by difficulties in executive functioning and motor performance, both of which may interfere with academic participation, behavioral regulation, and everyday functioning. This study compared executive and motor function responses to two movement-based interventions, Brain Gym and walking-based aerobic exercise, in girls screened positive for ADHD symptoms.

Methods: A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with two experimental groups and one waiting-list control group was used. Forty-five girls screened positive for ADHD symptoms in Tehran were selected by convenience sampling and allocated in a 1:1:1 ratio to Brain Gym, aerobic exercise, or control groups (n = 15 per group). ADHD eligibility was based on parent-reported ADHD symptoms assessed with the SNAP-IV parent form and available clinical/school documentation; the SNAP-IV was not treated as a stand-alone clinical diagnostic interview. Eligibility required normal intellectual functioning and no reported major neurological, sensory, or motor disorders based on available records. Both active groups completed 25 training sessions. Executive functions were assessed as a standardized composite derived from Continuous Performance Test indicators and the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure task, and motor skills were evaluated with the Test of Gross Motor Development, Third Edition. Data were analyzed using covariance-based group comparisons with pretest scores treated as covariates.

Results: Covariance-based comparisons indicated significant group effects for executive functions (F(2, 41) = 31.008, p < .001, partial eta squared = .602) and overall motor skills (F(2, 41) = 18.473, p < .001, partial eta squared = .474). Bonferroni comparisons showed that both Brain Gym and aerobic exercise outperformed the waiting-list control group for executive and motor outcomes. Brain Gym showed a higher adjusted executive-function composite score than aerobic exercise (mean difference = 3.184, SE = 0.750, p = .001). For overall motor skills, the difference between Brain Gym and aerobic exercise was not statistically significant (aerobic exercise minus Brain Gym = 1.999, SE = 0.888, p = .090).

Conclusion: The findings provide preliminary evidence that structured movement-based interventions may be associated with short-term improvements in executive and motor outcomes among girls screened positive for ADHD symptoms. Brain Gym showed a higher adjusted executive-function composite outcome, whereas both interventions produced broadly comparable overall motor benefits.

Effects of Pilates Training and Vitamin D Supplementation on BMD, BDNF, and Mineral Status in Women with Osteosarcoma

Asma Taheri ^* iD , Asma Soleimani iD

Objective: Osteosarcoma and its treatment protocols may disrupt bone mineral homeostasis, reduce bone mineral density (BMD), and alter neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This study aimed to investigate the effects of an 8-week Pilates training program combined with vitamin D supplementation on serum mineral-related biomarkers, BDNF, and BMD in women with osteosarcoma.

Methods: Fifty women with medically stable osteosarcoma (age: 29.50 ± 0.79 years; BMI: 23.65 kg/m²) participated in this randomized controlled trial. After screening and eligibility assessment, participants were randomly assigned to five groups (n = 10/group): Pilates + vitamin D (ExD), Pilates + placebo (ExP), Pilates only (Ex), vitamin D only (D), and control (CO). The Pilates intervention consisted of supervised sessions three times per week for 8 weeks (24 sessions total). Participants in supplementation groups received 5000 IU vitamin D3 weekly for 8 weeks. Supplement/placebo administration and outcome assessment were blinded.

Results: Eight weeks of combined Pilates and vitamin D supplementation were associated with significant improvements in serum calcium (p = 0.003), magnesium (p = 0.002), phosphorus (p = 0.01), BDNF (p = 0.01), and BMD (p = 0.01) compared with control conditions. Post-hoc analyses indicated that the ExD group demonstrated greater improvements than control and single-intervention groups (p ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion: Combined Pilates training and vitamin D supplementation may improve serum mineral-related biomarkers, BDNF, and BMD-related outcomes in women with osteosarcoma. Larger and longer-term studies are needed to confirm these preliminary findings.

International Journal of Sport Studies for Health

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Effects of Different Rest-Time Models on Neuromuscular and Performance Outcomes during Short High-Intensity Interval Training in Male Soccer Players

Digital Gaming Behavior Among University Students: Interactions of Attitudes, Motivation, and Addiction Awareness Across Demographic Factors

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Effects of Different Rest-Time Models on Neuromuscular and Performance Outcomes during Short High-Intensity Interval Training in Male Soccer Players

Structural Relationships Between Physical Education Course Happiness, Peer Relationships, and School Satisfaction: A Mediation Model Analysis

Effects of a Hybrid Immersive Virtual Reality and Conventional Football Training Program on Passing Performance, Decision-Making, and Game Performance in Undergraduate Physical Education Students

Outdoor Activity-Based Physical Education and Wearable Technology for Student Fitness and Well-Being Support

Development and Initial Validation of a Sensor-Based Motor Tracking Device for Measuring Early Childhood Motor Skills

Effects of Random Visual Stimulus Training on Anticipation, Reaction Time, and Stroke Accuracy in Competitive Table Tennis Players

Executive and Motor Function Responses to Brain Gym and Aerobic Exercise in Girls With ADHD

Effects of Pilates Training and Vitamin D Supplementation on BMD, BDNF, and Mineral Status in Women with Osteosarcoma