International Journal of Innovation Management and Organizational Behavior (IJIMOB)

Objective:  This study aims to investigate the effect of COVID-19 consequences on supply chain integration and supply chain performance, considering the mediating role of strategic flexibility in Iranian airline companies.

Methods and Materials: This applied, descriptive-correlational study examined employees of airline companies in Tehran as the statistical population (N = 3400). Using Cochran’s formula, a sample of 240 participants was selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected via a Likert-scale questionnaire whose reliability was confirmed through Cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeding 0.70. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and PLS software at both descriptive and inferential levels. Descriptive indicators such as mean, standard deviation, and frequency distribution were used, while structural equation modeling (SEM) and path analysis tested the research hypotheses. Additional indices such as CR, AVE, Q², SRMR, NIF, and GOF were used to evaluate model fit. The Sobel test was applied to assess the mediating role of strategic flexibility.

Findings: Results indicated that COVID-19 consequences significantly affected supply chain integration (β = 0.456, t = 10.100) and supply chain performance (β = 0.325, t = 10.222). COVID-19 also had a significant effect on strategic flexibility (β = 0.258, t = 7.455). Strategic flexibility significantly influenced supply chain integration (β = 0.459, t = 8.200) and supply chain performance (β = 0.369, t = 12.123). Sobel test results confirmed the mediating role of strategic flexibility, with indirect effects of 0.39 and 0.44, both with confidence intervals above zero. Model fit indices and R² values supported strong predictive power and high model adequacy.

Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that COVID-19 consequences significantly shape supply chain integration and performance, and strategic flexibility serves as a vital mediating mechanism that enhances organizational resilience and operational effectiveness within Iranian airline supply chains.

Objective: This study aimed to examine the relationship between ethical climate and organizational commitment among physical education teachers in Iran, focusing on the mediating role of organizational–professional conflict.

Methods and Materials: A correlational–descriptive design was used. The statistical population consisted of all physical education teachers in Iran (N ≈ 27,000). Based on Cochran and Sharp’s formula, 476 participants were selected through random sampling. Data were collected using four standardized instruments: the Ethical Climate Questionnaire (Cullen et al., 1993), the Organizational–Professional Conflict Questionnaire (Shafer et al., 2002), the Affective Commitment Scale (Meyer & Allen, 1984), and the Impression Management Scale (Paulhus, 1991). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.76 to 0.89, confirming acceptable reliability. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and hierarchical regression analysis via AMOS software, with significance set at p < 0.05.

Findings: Results revealed that ethical climate dimensions significantly influenced both organizational–professional conflict and affective commitment. Egoistic/individual, egoistic/cosmopolitan, and benevolent/local climates negatively predicted organizational–professional conflict, whereas principled/individual and principled/cosmopolitan climates showed positive effects. Ethical climate variables accounted for 47% of the variance in organizational–professional conflict and 37% in affective commitment. Organizational–professional conflict exhibited a significant negative correlation with affective commitment but did not mediate the relationship between ethical climate and commitment. Impression management significantly influenced reported perceptions of ethical climate and commitment, indicating potential social desirability bias.

Conclusion: The ethical climate in educational organizations plays a pivotal role in shaping teachers’ commitment and managing professional conflicts. Benevolent and principled ethical climates foster stronger affective commitment, whereas egoistic climates undermine it. However, organizational–professional conflict does not function as a mediator in this relationship. Enhancing ethical awareness, fairness, and supportive communication among educational managers can improve teachers’ affective commitment and organizational harmony.

Objective: The purpose of this article is to summarize the definitions, classifications, and characteristics of indicator systems and to create a foundation for understanding and developing a common system through a systematic review.

Methodology: Through a review study, using two English keywords, "Indicator System" and "System of Indicators", five databases—Springer, Sage, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, and Emerald—were systematically searched. After applying exclusion criteria, a total of 68 documents, which based on PRISMA indicators demonstrated acceptable quality for this study, were selected and analyzed. Data analysis in this research was conducted using Altheide’s method.

Findings:  According to the identified components, the indicator system “refers to a set of characteristics that, through quantitative and qualitative indicators, are influenced by three dimensions—temporal, environmental, and content-related—as well as the target audience, thereby enabling the reflection of changes, the simplification of understanding phenomena, and the measurement and provision of meaningful information about them.” Furthermore, the review of existing classifications in the design and development of indicator systems led to the proposal of a new taxonomy, structured into 40 levels and 14 categories, which are consolidated into six overarching themes: the nature of the indicator, the nature of indicator data, the degree of importance and order of operational steps, application and performance (thematic), number of indicators, and level.

Conclusion:  In addition, the findings of this study identified the characteristics of indicators as essentially descriptive, prescriptive, and deductive. It also provided explanations regarding the selection of good indicators, which will be further elaborated in the following sections.

Objective: This study aimed to develop and validate a comprehensive model of organizational legitimacy in Iraqi public universities.

Methodology: The research employed a quantitative–descriptive design. The statistical population consisted of 6,000 employees from Iraqi public universities, from which a sample of 361 participants was selected through stratified random sampling using Cochran’s formula. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire containing 80 items across 14 dimensions, including independence, innovation, organizational culture, participation, commitment, adaptability, leadership style, organizational support, reward systems, result orientation, mission clarity, organizational behavior, identity, and organizational structure. Validity was established through content and construct validity procedures, while reliability was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.86. Data analysis was performed using structural equation modeling (SEM) with LISREL software, and model fit was assessed using multiple fit indices.

Findings: All dimensions demonstrated statistically significant path coefficients, generally exceeding 0.5, with many approaching or surpassing 0.8, indicating strong contributions to organizational legitimacy. The highest factor loadings were observed for independence, innovation, and organizational culture. All t-values exceeded 1.96, confirming statistical significance. Model fit indices indicated strong alignment with the observed data.

Conclusion: The validated model confirms that organizational legitimacy in Iraqi public universities is a multidimensional construct influenced by both internal capabilities and external stakeholder perceptions. Strengthening independence, fostering innovation, cultivating organizational culture, promoting participation, and ensuring transparent governance are key strategies for enhancing legitimacy. The model offers a practical framework for policymakers and university leaders to guide institutional development and strategic planning in higher education.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the interrelationships among intellectual capital, psychological capital, and human resource productivity in the banking sector.

Methods and Materials: The research employed a cross-sectional survey design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of managers of Parsian Bank branches in Tehran, from which 287 individuals were selected through simple random sampling. Data were collected using three instruments: Bontis’s Intellectual Capital Questionnaire, Luthans’s Psychological Capital Questionnaire, and a researcher-developed Human Resource Productivity Questionnaire. Reliability was confirmed with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above acceptable thresholds, and validity was verified by expert review. Data analysis was performed using SPSS and LISREL, with model fit assessed through indices such as RMSEA, GFI, and AGFI.

Findings: The results revealed that intellectual capital significantly and positively influenced human resource productivity. Among its components, human capital exerted the strongest effect (path coefficient = 0.37), followed by structural capital (0.29) and relational capital (0.23). In addition, psychological capital had a positive and significant impact on human resource productivity, with a standardized coefficient of 0.32. All path coefficients were statistically significant (t-values > 1.96), confirming the robustness of the relationships. Goodness-of-fit indices indicated that the proposed structural model adequately fit the data, with RMSEA = 0.077, GFI = 0.90, and AGFI = 0.89.

Conclusion: The study underscores the dual importance of intellectual capital and psychological capital as complementary intangible resources that jointly enhance human resource productivity. By investing in knowledge-based assets and fostering positive psychological states among employees, organizations—particularly in knowledge-intensive industries like banking—can achieve sustainable improvements in productivity and competitiveness.

Objective: This study aimed to design and analyze a comprehensive ecological model of prisons in Iran with a focus on behavioral reform of inmates, using Tehran Prisons Organization as the case study.

Methods and Materials: This research employed an exploratory mixed-methods design with a qualitative emphasis. The qualitative phase was conducted using a phenomenological approach through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 16 experts, including senior prison managers and academic faculty with lived experience in the prison system. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached. Thematic analysis was used for qualitative data analysis, based on six systematic stages involving open coding, axial coding, and theme development using ATLAS.ti version 9 software. The conceptual framework was refined based on insights from the interviews, literature review, and expert validation, resulting in a three-level thematic model.

Findings: hematic analysis of expert interviews led to the identification of five overarching dimensions and multiple sub-themes influencing inmate behavior reform: prison environment (including physical conditions, social atmosphere, and security), reformative and educational programs (including vocational and academic training, psychological counseling), social and familial support (including reintegration support and family contact), economic and occupational conditions (including employment opportunities and financial aid), and judicial and managerial systems (including legal procedures and decision-making processes). These themes were integrated into a conceptual ecological model that captures the multi-dimensional and systemic factors contributing to rehabilitation and behavioral transformation in prison settings.

Conclusion: The ecological model developed in this study provides a practical and theoretical foundation for understanding and improving inmate behavior reform through systemic and multidimensional strategies. It emphasizes the need for integrated interventions across environmental, educational, psychological, social, and legal domains to foster sustainable reintegration outcomes.

Objective: This study aims to develop and present a model of shadow leadership in Iraq’s Ministry of Water Resources by examining its causal conditions, intervening factors, strategies, and consequences.

Methods and Materials: The study employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative research. In the qualitative phase, 18 experts, including university faculty members specializing in behavioral sciences and water resource professionals, were selected through purposive sampling for in-depth interviews. The qualitative data were analyzed using grounded theory, including open, axial, and selective coding. In the quantitative phase, 384 employees of the Ministry of Water Resources were surveyed using a researcher-designed questionnaire based on qualitative findings. The questionnaire’s validity was assessed using the Content Validity Ratio (CVR), and its reliability was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.858. Data analysis involved structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the proposed model.

Findings: The results indicate that shadow leadership in Iraq’s Ministry of Water Resources is shaped by political, social, and institutional factors. Causal conditions include power challenges, shadow power requirements, social challenges, environmental instability, and governmental shortcomings. Contextual conditions such as networked power, ideological influence, and media control reinforce shadow leadership mechanisms. Intervening factors, including critics’ management, stakeholder expectations, and political identity, shape strategic actions. Identified strategies encompass social development, professional development, media transformation, and fear-based cultural tactics. The consequences highlight both stabilizing effects, such as leadership efficiency and interaction development, and challenges, such as political control and reduced transparency.

Conclusion: Shadow leadership operates as an alternative mechanism of influence in bureaucratic institutions, particularly where formal leadership structures are constrained by political and governance challenges. While it can stabilize decision-making, it also poses risks to transparency and accountability. Strengthening formal governance mechanisms, fostering ethical leadership, and increasing participatory decision-making can mitigate the adverse effects of shadow leadership while leveraging its stabilizing role.

Keywords: Shadow leadership, informal power structures, governance, political influence, Iraq, structural equation modeling, grounded theory.