Resilience Model Based on Self-Esteem, Emotional Regulation, and Attachment to God: The Mediating Role of Emotion-Focused Coping Strategy

Introduction

Resilience is a relatively new field in empirical research that is currently gaining increasing attention from researchers, theorists, and practitioners. Resilience prepares individuals to confront any kind of threat and remain vigilant (Vinayak & Judge, 2018). Resilience acts as a protective factor against the development of psychiatric symptoms, serving as a mediator between risk factors and psychopathology. Protective factors play a significant role in the risk of developing mental disorders, and resilience is one of the key protective factors in mental health. Additionally, resilience protects against negative psychological outcomes and is found to be an essential protective factor for adaptive responses during stressful situations (Lara-Cabrera et al., 2021). Resilience, as a dynamic and protective process, enables individuals to effectively face stressful life situations. In other words, resilience helps individuals adapt to their surroundings and live peacefully with others, gaining a suitable position in society (Walker, 2020).

Resilience is a state developed within individuals, allowing them to continue working hard and achieve success despite encountering failures, problems, life tensions, and even positive events such as growth, progress, and increased responsibilities. Resilience is a phenomenon derived from humans' natural adaptive responses, enabling individuals to achieve success despite facing serious threats (Yoleri, 2020). In fact, the development of resilience is a process that enables individuals to understand others' behavior, control their own behavior, and regulate their social interactions (Stefanovics et al., 2020).

Moreover, self-esteem is a factor that helps individuals enhance their resilience. It is defined as the sense of self-worth, acceptance, and approval individuals have toward themselves (Asgari et al., 2016). The formation and enhancement of self-esteem from childhood to adulthood play an important role in mental and social health, helping individuals face outcomes and pursue academic goals (Begjani et al., 2022). High self-esteem is associated with increased capability, effective coping with psychological pressure, academic achievement, striving for success, and a tendency toward normal psychological and physical health (Giofrè et al., 2017; Moradi et al., 2023). Therefore, self-esteem can be understood as confidence in one's ability to think and cope with challenges, confidence in one's right to succeed and live happily, a sense of self-worth and competence, the right to express needs, and benefit from one's efforts (Jirdehi et al., 2018). Numerous empirical studies indicate that higher self-esteem is associated with greater resilience (Derosier et al., 2013). For example, Gao et al. (2019) found a significant relationship between self-esteem and resilience.

On the other hand, emotional regulation is another factor influencing resilience. Emotional regulation refers to the ability to understand emotions and modulate the experience and expression of emotions (Shaw et al., 2016). Emotional regulation includes all conscious and unconscious strategies used to increase, maintain, or decrease the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive components of an emotional response, referring to the ability to understand emotions, modulate experience, and express emotions. Thus, cognitive emotional regulation can be seen as a cognitive method of managing stimulated emotional information (Potthoff et al., 2016). A review of psychological literature and research shows that emotional regulation is an important factor in determining health and successful performance in social interactions. Deficiencies in emotional regulation are associated with internalizing disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress, as well as externalizing disorders like noncompliance and aggressive behavior (Zare et al., 2019). Mahmoodi and Ghaemi (2017) found that positive cognitive emotional regulation strategies positively predict resilience, while negative cognitive emotional regulation strategies negatively and significantly predict resilience.

Attachment to God is another factor influencing resilience. Kirkpatrick (1999), a theorist in the field of attachment to God, defines this type of attachment as the attachment to a primary caregiver during childhood, which continues over time within other systems, such as attachment to God and homeland. Attachment to God means that an individual sees God beside them in difficult situations, relies on God, and this reliance helps them use spiritual methods to face problems. Individuals with secure attachment maintain their calmness when facing difficulties and consider God as a secure refuge and source of peace (Kaveh, 2015).

Various studies have examined the relationship between attachment to God, resilience, and patience. Ghobari Bonab et al. (2019) found a positive and significant relationship between styles of attachment to God and patience and self-esteem among students. Additionally, Heydari et al. (2024) demonstrated a positive and significant relationship between attachment to God and resilience.

Another construct influencing resilience is coping strategies. Coping involves behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage, reduce, or endure internal and external demands created by stressful transactions. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1986), there are two types of coping strategies: one involves regulating emotions or anxiety caused by a stressful situation (emotion-focused coping), and the other involves managing the stressor by directly changing elements of the stressful situation (problem-focused coping) (Vasumathi & Murugeswari, 2019). Although both forms of coping are used in most events, they depend on how one evaluates the situation (Jaiswal et al., 2018; Ke & Barlas, 2020). Coping strategies are specific approaches individuals use to handle stressful life situations, encompassing cognitive and behavioral efforts to interpret and overcome problems. Problem-focused coping includes active confrontation strategies, planning, refraining from competitive activities, avoiding hasty actions, and seeking instrumental support (Molix & Bettencourt, 2010). Emotion-focused coping has both positive and negative dimensions. Positive emotion-focused coping includes efforts to regulate emotional responses when facing problems, such as seeking emotional social support, positive reinterpretation, acceptance, and humor. Negative emotion-focused coping includes mental disengagement from the issue, denial, and behavioral disengagement toward solving the problem (Cheng et al., 2013). In fact, emotion-focused coping skills address emotions related to the situation rather than controlling the situation itself. For example, individuals may use defense mechanisms to protect their unpleasant feelings about the situation.

Azizi et al. (2023), Ranjbar et al. (2022), Nironamnd et al. (2019), Gianesini and Brighi (2015), Gao et al. (2019), Ellis (2021), Mouatsou and Koutra (2021), Fernández-Castillo et al. (2022), and Soltani Ghahfarokhi et al. (2018) have shown that resilience is significantly related to attachment to God, self-esteem, emotional regulation, and coping strategies.

Numerous studies have been conducted in the field of resilience; however, an integrated study aimed at determining the direct and indirect mechanisms of individual factors (such as attachment to God, self-esteem, emotional regulation, and coping strategies) on resilience among students within a research design has not been conducted. Therefore, this study examines the combination of these variables within a conceptual model and investigates the direct and indirect relationships of these factors with resilience. In other words, the structural model examined in this study is a model of protective factors for resilience among students.

Therefore, this study aims to answer the important question of whether individual factors (attachment to God, self-esteem, emotional regulation) can directly and indirectly predict resilience in students through the mediating variable (emotion-focused coping strategy).

Methods and Materials

Study Design and Participants

This research is descriptive, survey-based, and correlational. The statistical population includes all male and female students studying at undergraduate, master's, and doctoral levels at Islamic Azad University, Yazd Branch, during the 2022-2023 academic year. According to obtained statistics, the total number of students is 9,550. Based on the Morgan table, the statistical sample size is 369, and considering a 10% probability of dropout, a sample size of 408 was determined. Ultimately, with 8 invalid questionnaires, the final sample size was 400. The sample was selected using stratified random sampling.

To examine the psychometric properties (validity and reliability) of the research questionnaires, Cronbach's alpha coefficient using SPSS and confirmatory factor analysis using PLS4 were employed. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were used to describe the research variables, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze the conceptual model using PLS4 software. The data collection tools included the following:

Measures

Resilience

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) comprises 25 items scored on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (not true at all) to 5 (always true). Validity concerns the extent to which a measurement tool measures what it is intended to measure (Huis in ’t Veld et al., 2011). In a study by Mohammadi (2005), the questionnaire's validity was confirmed by experts, and its reliability was found to be 0.93 using Cronbach's alpha.

Attachment to God

This questionnaire is based on a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). In the study by Ghobari Bonab et al. (2019), internal validity was tested using factor analysis, and external validity was confirmed. The results showed that the questionnaire scores had a high negative correlation with stress, anxiety, and depression scores. The questionnaire's reliability was calculated using Cronbach's alpha. Typically, Cronbach's alpha coefficient ranges from zero (0), indicating no reliability, to positive one (1+), indicating complete reliability. The closer the obtained value is to positive one, the higher the reliability of the questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha for the Attachment to God questionnaire was 0.90 for the seeking component, 0.93 for secure base, 0.88 for safe haven, 0.86 for separation concern, 0.85 for positive perception of God, and 0.90 for positive perception of self.

Self-Esteem

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was developed by Rosenberg in 1965. It consists of ten items measuring positive and negative feelings about oneself. Given that the psychometric properties of this scale have been reported as very suitable in various studies, it is particularly popular among researchers. According to the creator, this tool is a unidimensional scale, although in recent years, it has been emphasized as having both positive and negative factors (Greenberger et al., 2003). This scale includes 10 self-report items, each scored on a four-point Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree). The correlation of the Rosenberg scale with the Life Satisfaction Test was reported as 0.43 among adolescents and 0.54 among college students (Greenberger et al., 2003). In Mohammadi's (2005) study, the reliability of this scale among a sample of Shiraz University students was reported as 0.69 using Cronbach's alpha and 0.68 using the split-half method. Additionally, test-retest coefficients of this scale were reported as 0.77 after one week, 0.73 after two weeks, and 0.78 after three weeks.

Cognitive Emotion Regulation

The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) by Garnefski et al. (2001) is a multidimensional, self-report tool consisting of 36 items, with specific forms for adults and children. The CERQ assesses nine strategies: self-blame, acceptance, rumination, positive refocusing, refocus on planning, positive reappraisal, putting into perspective, catastrophizing, and other-blame. Respondents are asked to indicate their reactions to recent threatening and stressful life events by answering five questions that assess strategies for controlling and regulating emotions. Common cognitive strategies for emotional regulation in adverse conditions include self-blame, blaming others, rumination, catastrophizing, perspective-taking, positive refocusing, positive reappraisal, acceptance, and planning (Samani et al., 2010). The questionnaire is scored on a Likert scale: never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4), and always (5). The Persian version of this scale has been validated by Samani and Jokar (2010). The alpha coefficient for the subscales of this questionnaire was reported by Garnefski et al. (2001) to range from 0.71 to 0.81.

Coping Strategies

The Lazarus and Folkman Coping Strategies Questionnaire, based on the Coping Strategies Inventory developed by Lazarus and Folkman in 1980 and revised in 1985, consists of 66 items measuring eight coping scales: 1. Confrontive coping, 2. Distancing, 3. Self-controlling, 4. Seeking social support, 5. Accepting responsibility, 6. Escape-avoidance, 7. Planful problem-solving, and 8. Positive reappraisal. To evaluate the reliability of the research questionnaires, Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability indices were used.

Data analysis

Data preparation and analysis of central indicators, skewness, distribution, and normality tests were performed using SPSS 22 software. Additionally, PLS4 software was used to fit measurement models (Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity), structural models (direct effect, indirect effect, and total effect), and the conceptual model (GoF, SRMR, NFI, and Q2).

Findings and Results

According to Table 1, the descriptive statistics for the variables are as follows: self-esteem (M = 20.432, SD = 9.676), attachment to God (M = 36.826, SD = 11.943), emotional regulation (M = 110.218, SD = 31.205), coping strategies (M = 69.670, SD = 14.123), and resilience (M = 66.620, SD = 20.152). Based on central indices, there is not much difference between the mean and median of the variables attachment to God, emotional regulation, and coping strategies. The skewness results indicate that the skewness of self-esteem, attachment to God, resilience, and coping strategies is rightward, while the skewness of emotional regulation is leftward. Additionally, the distribution shape of the emotional regulation variable is shorter than the normal distribution, while the distribution shapes of self-esteem, attachment to God, resilience, and coping strategies are taller than the normal distribution. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine the type of data distribution. Based on the significance levels for the research variables, it can be concluded that the distributions of self-esteem, attachment to God, emotional regulation, resilience, and coping strategies are non-parametric.

The non-normal distribution of data in this study necessitated the use of Smart PLS 4 software for model fitting, structural model fitting, and overall model fitting. Figure 1 presents the conceptual model for the research variables in terms of standard coefficients and significance coefficients. This model evaluates the relationships between self-esteem, attachment to God, and emotional regulation with resilience, mediated by coping strategies.

Figure 1

Conceptual Model of the Research in Terms of Standard Coefficient and Significance Coefficient

To assess the reliability of the research questionnaires, Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability indices were used. Since the obtained values for both indices in Table 2 are above 0.70, the reliability of the questionnaires for emotional regulation, attachment to God, self-esteem, resilience, and coping strategies is acceptable. Convergent validity of the questionnaires was assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE) index and the Fornell-Larcker criterion for discriminant validity. Since the AVE values for the research variables are above 0.50, the convergent validity of the variables is acceptable.

As shown in Table 3, the Fornell-Larcker discriminant validity results indicate that the main diagonal values for each variable are greater than their underlying values, indicating acceptable discriminant validity for the variables of emotional regulation, attachment to God, self-esteem, resilience, and coping strategies.

Since the AVE values are above 0.50, the convergent validity of the questionnaires is acceptable. Additionally, as the main diagonal values in the Fornell-Larcker discriminant validity results are greater than their underlying values, the discriminant validity for the variables of resilience, emotional regulation, attachment to God, self-esteem, and coping strategies is acceptable.

Table 4 presents the standard coefficient and significance coefficient findings for the conceptual model. Based on the findings of the direct effect:

H0: There is no significant relationship between the research variables based on the direct effect path coefficient. H1: There is a significant relationship between the research variables based on the direct effect path coefficient.

The path coefficient findings in the direct effect indicate that there is a positive and direct relationship between emotional regulation, coping strategies, attachment to God, and self-esteem with resilience. Additionally, the relationships between self-esteem and emotional regulation with coping strategies are positive and direct, while the relationship between attachment to God and coping strategies is negative and indirect.

Based on the significance coefficient findings in the direct effect, for the path from emotional regulation to resilience (t = 2.641, p = 0.008), for the path from emotional regulation to coping strategies (t = 6.501, p = 0.001), for the path from attachment to God to resilience (t = 7.400, p = 0.001), for the path from attachment to God to coping strategies (t = 4.524, p = 0.001), for the path from coping strategies to resilience (t = 5.804, p = 0.001), for the path from self-esteem to resilience (t = 4.647, p = 0.001), and for the path from self-esteem to coping strategies (t = 4.561, p = 0.001). Therefore, it can be concluded that at the 95% confidence level and 0.05 error level, the H1 hypothesis is confirmed. In other words, in the structural models of the research, based on the direct effect, there is a significant relationship between the research variables.

In the indirect effect, the relationship between emotional regulation and self-esteem through the mediation of coping strategies is positive and direct, while the relationship between attachment to God and resilience through the mediation of coping strategies is negative and indirect.

For fitting the structural models based on the indirect effect findings:

H0: There is no significant relationship between self-esteem, attachment to God, and emotional regulation with the mediation of coping strategies. H1: There is a significant relationship between self-esteem, attachment to God, and emotional regulation with the mediation of coping strategies.

Since, in the indirect effect, for the path from emotional regulation to resilience (t = 3.750, p = 0.001), attachment to God to resilience (t = 3.779, p = 0.001), and self-esteem to resilience (t = 3.388, p = 0.001), it can be concluded that at the 95% confidence level and 0.05 error level, the H1 hypothesis is confirmed. In other words, there is a significant relationship between emotional regulation, self-esteem, and attachment to God with resilience through the mediation of coping strategies.

For fitting the structural models based on the total effect findings:

H0: There is no significant relationship between the research variables based on the total effect findings. H1: There is a significant relationship between the research variables based on the total effect findings.

Since the significance levels for all pathways in Table 5 are less than the error level of 0.05, it can be concluded that at the 95% confidence level and 0.05 error level, the H1 hypothesis is confirmed.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study aimed to determine the mediating role of emotion-focused coping strategies in the relationship between self-esteem, emotional regulation, and attachment to God with resilience among students at the Islamic Azad University, Yazd Branch. The findings indicated that the model predicting resilience based on self-esteem, emotional regulation, and attachment to God, with the mediating role of students' coping strategies, has a good fit. The results showed that the direct path coefficient between self-esteem and resilience is positive and significant. This finding is consistent with the results of Fernández-Castillo, Chacón-López, Fernández-Prados (2022), and Soltani Ghahfarokhi et al. (2018).

To explain this finding, it can be said that individuals with high self-esteem focus on their positive competencies and interpret events and react to them in a way that maintains their positive self-worth. Naturally, a sense of self-worth and competence leads to experiencing positive emotions and feelings. More specifically, individuals with high self-esteem use adaptive self-regulation strategies and more effective responses in various situations, which leads to greater resilience (Ourerson & Jost, 2007). Self-esteem, as a form of positive self-assessment, is a strong predictor of general happiness and a powerful factor in protecting against psychosocial risks. Students with high self-esteem are resistant and resilient against various life problems, economic issues, psychological pressures, threats, natural disasters, and mental illnesses. Most experts consider self-esteem to be a central and fundamental factor in individuals' emotional-social adaptation. This belief was initially emphasized by sociologists and psychologists such as Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley, who highlighted the importance of positive self-esteem. The outcome of such self-esteem is the increased resilience of individuals against life's problems and psychological pressures.

Additionally, the findings indicated a positive and significant relationship between attachment to God and students' resilience. These results align with the findings of Ranjbar et al. (2022) and Ellis (2021).

To explain this finding, Kirkpatrick's (1999) theory can be cited, which defines attachment to God as an attachment to a primary caregiver during childhood that continues over time within other systems, such as attachment to God and homeland. The experience of love in a relationship with God is similar to the child-mother attachment (Kirkpatrick, 1999). Kirkpatrick believes that individual differences formed during early relationships likely shape interpersonal relationships in adolescence, and this continuity results from the development and maintenance of basic internal patterns. Yang and Mao (2007) believe that having a purpose and meaning in life, feeling connected to a higher meaning, hoping for God's help in challenging situations, and benefiting from social and spiritual support are ways that religious individuals can suffer less when facing stressful life events. Students with attachment to God have more support resources and thus are more capable of dealing with problems. In this sense, God, as a source of attachment, provides a context in which individuals feel more secure and have a higher ability to cope with negative life events.

The findings showed a direct relationship between emotional regulation and resilience. This finding is consistent with the results of Nironamnd et al. (2019) and Mahmoodi and Ghaemi (2017).

To explain this hypothesis, the social-cognitive theory can be cited. According to this theory, the development of emotional regulation depends on personal, environmental, and behavioral factors that operate independently but interact with each other. From this perspective, it is assumed that learning emotional regulation occurs within a threefold balance: the person, the environment, and behavior. According to this approach, emotional regulation is not solely influenced by personal factors but is also affected by the environment and behavior. However, the impact of these three factors is not equal; one of the three may have a more significant influence depending on the specific situation and conditions. This self-regulation learning occurs when individuals can use personal processes to regulate behavioral strategies and the learning environment (Bandura, 1989).

Emotional regulation helps reduce negative emotional responses and accept them, thereby increasing resilience in unfavorable conditions. The mechanism of emotional regulation enables individuals to identify and manage their automatic thoughts, reducing stress. Emotional awareness and recognizing conflicts increase stress management skills. Acceptance of emotions also enhances the ability to endure difficult conditions, which increases resilience (MoghimIslam et al., 2013).

The findings showed a direct relationship between coping strategies and resilience. To explain the role of emotion-focused coping strategies and their impact on resilience, it can be said that emotion-focused coping involves a set of behavioral efforts aimed at interpreting and modifying a stressful situation, thereby reducing the associated suffering. These behaviors, such as confronting and standing up to demands, are typically employed by individuals in stressful situations to control or reduce the emotional reactions triggered by stress, aiming to restore a healthy emotional balance.

The results of examining indirect path coefficients indicated that self-esteem is indirectly related to resilience through emotion-focused coping strategies. The positive interpretation of negative emotions by individuals with high self-esteem can provide the groundwork for their health. According to Lazarus and Folkman's (1986) theory, in emotion-focused coping, individuals find methods to control their emotions and strive to remain hopeful when facing stressful situations. Students with a better self-perception and higher self-esteem use this strategy, controlling their emotions and demonstrating more adaptability and flexibility toward the stressful and anxious situation. Thus, it can be concluded that self-esteem helps individuals using emotion-focused coping styles in stressful situations to control their emotions and exhibit greater flexibility in facing adversities.

The results of examining indirect path coefficients indicated that attachment to God has a negative and significant relationship with resilience through emotion-focused coping strategies.

To explain this finding, it can be said that students' attachment to God is a positive point that leads to greater self-control. These students believe that by relying on God, they can control uncontrollable and stressful situations and, with special attention to God, feel they have more ability to deal with problems. Religion and connection with God influence individuals' cognitive processes, and religion is a process through which individuals can consider future outcomes as successful. Trust in God and faith in Him lead to a meaningful and purposeful outlook on the entirety of existence, and God, as a secure refuge and source of attachment, allows individuals to consider Him as a point of attachment (Kave, 2016). However, using emotion-focused coping strategies alone prevents students from direct and effective engagement with stress and tension, reducing their ability to solve problems related to these tensions. Therefore, it can be stated that emotion-focused coping strategies are effective short-term strategies, but in the long run, they hinder psychological adaptation and increase signs of distress.

The results of examining indirect path coefficients indicated that emotional regulation is indirectly related to resilience through emotion-focused coping strategies.

Students using effective emotional regulation strategies consciously and actively modify their raw and emotional reactions and assessments when facing stressful situations. Effective emotional regulation also increases the frequency and depth of pleasant and enjoyable emotions. Emotional regulation plays a crucial role in the relationship between stressors and physical health. An individual's evaluation of a stressful situation has a decisive role in its subsequent outcomes. Two individuals may perceive a specific event differently, depending on their evaluation of the situation. It appears that cognitive emotional regulation influences this evaluation. The more capable a student is in understanding, identifying, regulating, and precisely expressing emotions, the more effective they will be. The better the regulation and control of emotions in a student, the less stress they will experience in stressful situations, leading to better decision-making and more focus on achieving success.

Limitations & Suggestions

Overall, it can be concluded that the results of this research significantly contribute to improving students' resilience. There were limitations in this study, including the use of questionnaires for data collection, which may not accurately describe reality as a self-report tool. Factors such as lack of interest in the research topic or the large number of questions could affect the accuracy of participants' responses. It is suggested that the identified components be considered in psychological assessments of students seeking counseling services, and if students lack such characteristics, interventions and training should be provided accordingly. Additionally, an educational package based on the identified dimensions and components in this model can be prepared and used to inform and educate students about resilience factors in crisis situations.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to all those who cooperated in carrying out this study.

Declaration of Interest

The authors of this article declared no conflict of interest.

Ethical Considerations

The study protocol adhered to the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration, which provides guidelines for ethical research involving human participants.

Transparency of Data

In accordance with the principles of transparency and open research, we declare that all data and materials used in this study are available upon request.

Funding

This research was carried out independently with personal funding and without the financial support of any governmental or private institution or organization.

Authors’ Contributions

All authors equally contributed to this article.